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After hard work for many decades archeologists based on the researches and findings through the archeological works, attained to provide evidence, which assisted them on the solution of the complicated puzzle of the great ancient civilizations. Three of the most powerful ancient civilization evolved around the Mediterranean Sea and those were, the Egyptians, the Minoans and the Romans. The Egyptians civilization evolved at the south of the Mediterranean Sea, although Niles River was the key point of the development of the great River Valley civilization. The Minoans civilization developed at the island of Crete between 3000-1100 BC. Minoans civilization is also known as European civilization. The period of the Empires from 26 BC - 476 AD was the period, which the Romans civilization won his position in Italy and the Mediterranean and gained both political and administrative experiences.
Through those great ancient civilizations humanity gained the elements needed, in order to build a strong bases for a bright future development. Those civilizations developed new methods of writing, new methods of building (pyramids, palaces of Knossos, Mallia, Phaestos, and Colosseum). Moreover, during that period there was the first appearance of money, which indicates the existence of exchanges, consequently it can be supported the existence of trade within the civilizations and between civilizations as well. Additionally there was a great development in art (sculpture, painting, music, and theater). The attempts of people to improve their personal life drove them on the development of a new method of amusement. Through the years, sport linked with art and religious manifestations, but the basic role of sport for those people was to add one more element of personal enjoyment and pleasant in their everyday life.
To begin with, in ancient Egypt the pecking order had the shape of a pyramid. At the top of the pyramid was the pharaoh. Based on the religious perspective Pharaoh was the closest person to god. At the middle of the pyramid were a small number of priests and dignitaries and at the base of the pyramid was the larger part of the population, the soldiers and the slaves. Sport in ancient Egypt is strong related with cults, either dead or leaving gods. Most of the evidence come from the paintings in tombs of the rich and the pharaohs between 2040-1640 BC (appendix 1). However there is a decreasing amount of evidence during the New Kingdom period, 1550-1070 BC and none at all after this. The first difficulty to link sport and Ancient Egypt rises due to the fact that pictorial pictures, such as the picture in page 1, which represent sport activities, are rare. There was no clear evidence of spectators and furthermore there was no evidence of playgrounds. One of the most important elements in order to design a historical research and therefore to conclude in a model is to hold enough evidence to support the theory. Evidence, which comes from Herodotus who was born in 480 BC, reports that wrestling was still popular in Egypt in 450 BC. Through that evidence there is a straightness of the conceptual framework that support the existence of wrestling in ancient Egypt, but still the evidence is not sufficient to support entire the conceptual framework, therefore any conclusion will be inaccurate. Moreover, since ancient Egyptian writing remains still complicated it is difficult the translation of the language, therefore any translation can sometimes be confusing and lead to possible misunderstandings.
The daily life for every ancient Egyptian was strong linked with the religion. By having no spectators and playgrounds it can be supported that the initial form of wrestling in ancient Egypt was strongly related with religions manifestations. It can be also supported that if there was a wrestling as a sport, it was only a privilege for the rich people and the soldiers. That is because the role for every slave was only to work day and night in orders to complete the hugely pyramids. The finding of the pyramids, the tombs, and the temples are strong evidence that demonstrate the art, architecture, and religious concept of the ancient Egyptians. Although, the evidence, which support the existence of sport in ancient Egyptian civilization, are negligible and for that reason the great ancient Egyptian civilization is unknown in sport perspective.
Very close to Egypt in an island called Crete the Minoan civilization was developed between 3000-1100 BC. This period was classified into three as follows: the early period 3000-1950 BC, the middle period 1950-1550 BC, and the late period 1550-1100 BC. Most of the evidence arrived from the beginning of the middle period. During that period a number of fabulous palaces were constructed. The art development also was superb. From wall painting (appendix 2) and many other artifacts such the bronze bulls found in Knossos, figure 2, page 2, there was a clear picture of the type of games and sports played by the Minoans. The bronze bull and the acrobat (figure 2, page 2) and the main fresco itself (appendix 2) shows a galloping bull, with acrobats, dressed in very similar way (all wearing loincloth and girdle). Also it can be observed that all the athletes were having long hairs. The evidence that arrived from the Minoan civilization concerning the bull jumping (taureador) was so powerful and understandable that the archeologist stopped to search for more in order to confirm their model. After hard consideration and correlation of the evidence the final suggestion from the archeologist was that Minoans used bulls in order to perform shows tumbling and other forms of acrobatics.
The next question that the archeologist set was the real venue of the games. On the one hand, some experts maintain that bull jumping was held outside the confines of the major palaces, while others argue that these contents were held in the central courts of the palaces. The evidence through the archeological researches from the palace at Knossos provided to the archeologist four of the five criteria deemed necessary by the proponents of the central court theory:
a) Spectators facilities with a safe viewing area,
b) Access to the central court from the exterior of the palace,
c) A system to keep the bull confined to the central court, and
d) Pens for housing the animals prior to the contest.
The fifth criterion- evidence of a vaulting device- was not as conclusive. Although, a study from professor J. W. Graham supports that some sort of artificial device may have been used to assist Minoans vaulters to perform the jumps over the bulls (James G. Thompson 1986). A large stone approximately 28 cm high found in central court at Mallia (appendix 3a) have been suggested that was used by Mallian bull-leapers in the same manner that modern days gymnasts use a springboard over the long horse. Based on the evidence (artificial devices, constructive method of the palaces, and a large number of frescos representing bulls and jumpers) archeologists suggest that Minoans during the Bronze Age (3000-1100 BC) used the bulls in order to perform shows tumbling and other forms of acrobatics in front of a number of spectators.
Archeologists support that Minoans were an incredible peaceful civilization since nowhere Cretan artifacts contain evidence of warlike exploits. The main pursuit of the Minoans was to improve the conditions of their daily life. One-way to achieve that was the organization of the games. A number of ample spectator facilities with a safe area for viewing the contents found in the three most well known palaces (appendix 3b). Minoans strongly linked bull jumping with religious ceremonies, but the addition of spectators facilities add one more reason for the organization of the events, the aspect of the amusement. According on the archeological evidence Minoans were the first who organized events in order to improve their personal amusement.
In 509 BC the Romans defeated the Etruscans, a civilization, which is not well known to us. After the collapse of the Etruscans civilization a small community known as Latuim situated near the Tiber River started to grow. The roman republic lasted until 146 BC, year that Rome finally conquered Greece. Between 146 BC - 27 BC Rome survived a number of socio-political crises until the establishment of the empire in 27 BC, which lasted until 476 AD.
For the Romans the game or ludi, was originally religious celebration but the aim of the games changed entirely with the beginning of the circus games. The circus games consisted of 24 races (betting was considerable) and the main plan was to keep the unemployed Romans happy. The main events during the circus games were the chariots and the horse racing, although the circus was also used for gladiators and wild animals fights (figure 3, page 3). The arms that gladiators usually used were shields, swords, bucklers, daggers, nets, and tridents. The picture 3 in page 3 portrays a number of well-armed gladiators fighting wild animals (lions) by using shields and swords. A huge number of frescos representing gladiator fighting wild animals supports the model of the games that Romans organized during that period. Although, Colosseum (appendix 4), which was the venue of the macabre sports, is the most powerful evidence that archeologist possessed in order to validate their model. The Colosseum was expressly designed for the entertainment of the Roman citizens. The construction started under the Emperor Vespasian (AD 69-79) and completed by the Titus in AD 80. Using native stone and marble roman architects created a four-tiered oval shaped stadium similar to a modern football stadium.
Romans games and sporting events did not function as a catalyst for physical education as happened in ancient Greece. For the first time there was no relationship between games and religion. The main aim of the games was to entertain the Romans citizens, but the basic idea was to divert the attention of the nation weary and depressed by constant warfare. For the fist time games and festivals were finances and administered by the government. Some other times, politicians organized games and spectacles for blatant political purposes. The Romans were the first that used the games for entertainment of the spectators. The games took place at magnificent building, constructed only for sport events. In contrast, for the Greeks the games were great event. Man aspired to compete; they were contents between citizens in order to win honor for their city.
The development of the ancient world between 2040 BC and AD 476 was superb. The first evidences of sport activities arrived from the ancient Egypt. A number of frescos representing young people performed wrestling techniques found in the tombs of the rich and the pharaohs. Ancient Egyptians designed sport for exercise and strength building, and also for pleasure and recreation. Minoans followed the same concept for the organization of their games but they add spectators in order to make the sport a method of amusement. Minoans by using the trade through sailing brought new materials from Cyprus, Sicily, and Egypt in order to improve their livings conditions. Lot of people from those places followed the Minoans and stayed in the island of Crete for many years. The black acrobat (appendix 2) validates the existence of Negroes in the island of Crete during that period. After the end of the Minoan civilization the Greeks and then the Etruscans developed two superb civilizations, which they were going to collapse with the formation of the great Roman Empire. Romans brought slaves and wild animals; mainly form northern Africa (e.g. Egypt) in order to be used for the games. The Roman Empire was ultimately divided into two geographic regions: the western empire, centered in Rome, and the eastern, located in Constantinople. The Greeks influence the western empire, the Persians and the Egyptians mostly influence the eastern empire. Although, Roman civilization mainly based on pragmatic and utilitarian materials, factors that sought to emphasize the practical and the purposeful. Based on that concept they build the image of their games.
Every single piece of evidence, that is turn up after an archeological research is a part of the completion of the puzzle that archeologist trying to solve. Based on the evidence it can be supported that a form of sport started to grow in ancient Egypt. From that period on and since Roman Empire, there was a fabulous development of sports. More and more games added in the daily life of the ancient people. People started to organize great sport events following a specific dates, and began to live through sports. The evidences arriving from the ancient Egypt concerning sport events are rare. Some of them are hard to give any explanation since they have lost their shape or brightness. On the other hand, the evidence, which vindicate the existence of sport events during Minoans, and Romans civilizations are essential. For the archeologist, the understanding of sport development remains a hard work, which need time and patience. Through those elements, archeologist will continue their successful research in order to fulfill the complicated mosaic of the great ancient civilizations.
REFERENCES
Baker, W. J., 1988. Sports in the western world. Revised edition. USA: Illini books edition.
Mechikoff, R. and Ester, S., 1993. A history and philosophy of sport and physical education. USA: Wm. C. Brown communications, Inc.
Theochari, M. et al., 1970. The history of the Greek nation. Greece: Athens publishing.
Thompson, J. G., 1986. The location of Minoan bull-sports: A consideration of the problem. Journal of sport history, 13 (1), 5-13. Available from Sport discus, University of Portsmouth [accessed: 02 May 2001]
Thompson, J. G., 1989. Clues to the location of Minoan bull-jumping from the palace at Knossos. Journal of sport history, 16 (1), 62-69. Available from Sport discus, University of Portsmouth [accessed: 02 May 2001]
Zeigler, E. F., 1988. History of physical education and sport. Revised edition. Illinois, USA: Stipes publishing company.
Appendix 1:
Ziegler E. F., History of physical education and sport, page 18. 1998, revised edition.
Appendix 3a: Thompson, J. G., The location of Minoan bull-sports: A consideration of the problem. Journal of sport history., 13 (1), 5-13, Page 9.
Appendix 3b: Thompson, J. G., Clues to the location of Minoan bull-jumping from the palace at Knossos. Journal of sport history, 16 (1), 62-69, Page 67.
Appendix 4: Baker, W. J., Sports in the western world, page 38. 1988, revised edition
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